United Kingdom
Impact
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Treaty Status | Management & Coordination | Impact (contamination & casualties) | Addressing the Impact (land release, risk education, victim assistance)
Country Summary
At the Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties to the Mine Ban Treaty, held virtually in November 2020, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) announced that as of 14 November 2020, it had fulfilled its obligations under Article 5 in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas. In total, 122 minefields were cleared, releasing 23km²of land.[1] The UK was also thought to have some residual cluster munition remnants contamination present within mined areas of the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas. However, the UK has not reported any cluster munition remnants contamination in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas in its Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 7 transparency reports.
The UK became a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty on 1 March 1999, and national legislation implementing the treaty entered into force the same day. The UK had responsibilities under Article 5 of the treaty, due to its claim of sovereignty over the Falklands Islands/Islas Malvinas.
The UK started clearance in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas in 2009. In November 2008, the UK requested, and was granted, a 10-year extension to its Article 5 deadline to clear mine-affected in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas. A further five-year extension was requested in March 2018, and was granted, stipulating a new clearance deadline of 1 March 2024.
No civilians have been reported injured or killed as a result of antipersonnel landmines or cluster munition remnants in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas. Risk education was provided as part of normal health and safety measures.[2]
Mine-affected areas in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas were fenced off, while legislation made it illegal for people to enter contaminated areas.
Treaty status overview
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Mine Ban Treaty |
State Party Completed Article 5 clearance obligations in November 2020, ahead of 1 March 2024 deadline |
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Convention on Cluster Munitions |
State Party |
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Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) |
State Party |
The UK became a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty in 1999 and submitted two Article 5 deadline extension requests. The first extension request was submitted in 2008, for 10 years until 2019, and a second five-year extension was later approved, to 1 March 2024.[3] The UK announced completion of its Article 5 obligations in November 2020, ahead of its March 2024 deadline.[4]
The UK is also a State Party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions, although it has not reported any obligations under Article 4.
Mine Action management and coordination
Mine action management and coordination overview[5]
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Mine action commenced |
2009 |
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National mine action management actors |
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Mine action legislation |
Crimes Ordinance 1989 Landmine Act 1998 |
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Mine action strategic and operational plans |
Workplans developed for the different phases of demining |
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Mine action standards |
International Mine Action Standards (IMAS), adapted to meet the specifics of the situation on the islands, and of each task |
The National Mine Action Authority (NMAA) was established in 2009 to regulate, manage and coordinate mine action activities in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas. The NMAA is chaired by the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO), and comprises representatives from the Ministry of Defence, the Falklands Islands Government, and a strategic advisor.
The Demining Project Office (Fenix Insight) monitored operational progress and performance in the mine clearance program, and chaired the local land release committee.[6]
The Suspect Hazardous Area Land Release Committee (SHALARC) provided a forum for mine action contractors to discuss project progress and the land release process. SHALARC is based on the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas and is composed of local officials and a representative of the UK military.[7]
All demining efforts were conducted in close cooperation with the Falkland Islands Government.[8]
The total cost of the demining program was £44 million (US$56 million), funded in full by the UK Government.[9]
Legislation and standards
The UK approved a Landmines Act in 1998, which came into force in 1999.[10] The Falkland Islands Government has had a Crimes Ordinance in place since 1989, making it a criminal offence for any person to willfully enter a minefield; to cause or attempt to cause a landmine to explode; to cut or remove minefield fencing; to remove, damage or obscure minefield signs or notices; or to drive an animal into a minefield.[11]
Environmental protection
The Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas contain sensitive flora, fauna, and fragile terrain which created an additional challenge to mine clearance. Environmental standards for clearance were agreed on in coordination with the Environmental Planning Department of the Falkland Islands Government, to minimize damage to the fragile environment, and to aid remediation.[12] The UK also conducted an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in 2017, in preparation for the most environmentally sensitive minefields to be cleared from 2018 onwards. The EIA identified two particular issues: a) penguins which often breed in burrows in mined areas,[13] and, b) the sensitive beach and sand dune area at Yorke Bay, where the last areas to be cleared were located.[14] The report set down conditions to ensure that the impact on the environment was limited to the minimum practicable impact.[15]
Information management
Fenix Insight ran a detailed operational performance management database, which allowed the Demining Project Office manager to analyze performance, check the validity of future plans, and identify trends and other factors that influenced overall performance.[16]
Gender and diversity
The UK reported that gender policies and procedures were in place to cover mine action activities in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas, including at the level of the FCO, the NMAA, the land release contractor, and the demining project.[17]
Contamination
Contamination (as of November 2020)[18]
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Landmines |
None, the UK reported completion of its clearance operations in November 2020 |
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Cluster munition remnants |
None reported by the UK, although some submunitions were found and cleared during demining operations |
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Other ERW contamination |
ERW were contained within known hazardous areas |
Note: ERW=Explosive Remnants of War.
In 2009, 122 mined areas were identified.[19] As of 30 April 2020, it was reported that there were four remaining areas to be cleared in the Yorke Bay area, totaling 0.26km².[20]
In November 2020, the UK announced fulfillment of its clearance obligations, and reported that a total of 23km² was released back to the community through clearance operations.[21]
Landmine Contamination
Landmines were laid in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas during the 1982 conflict between the UK and Argentina. The Argentine Government reported to the United Nations (UN) that 20,000 antipersonnel mines and 5,000 antivehicle mines were transported to the islands by its armed forces during the war. Approximately 1,855 mines have been removed and destroyed following the conflict.[22]
Mined areas covered a wide range of terrain, including sandy beaches and dunes, mountains, rock screes, dry peat, wet swampy peat, and pasture. However, mined areas accounted for only 0.1% of the land used for farming. Some of the contaminated areas were isolated, with no access tracks.
Cluster munition remnants contamination
The UK has not reported any cluster munition remnants contamination in its Article 7 reports under the Convention on Cluster Munitions. However, some cluster munition remnants contamination was believed to have existed within the mined areas in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas.
There are also estimated to be over 2,000 crates of AN-M1A1 and/or AN-M4A1 “cluster adapter” type bombs remaining in UK waters in the cargo of a sunken World War II ship, off the east coast of England. The SS Richard Montgomery vessel, carrying a cargo of munitions, was stranded and wrecked off the Thames Estuary, near Sheerness, in August 1944, and remains submerged there. The former UK Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA) has listed best estimates of the munitions remaining aboard the ship, including 2,297 cases of fragmentation cluster bombs, with AN M1A1 and/or AN M4A1 “cluster adapter” submunitions. Surveys from November 2017 and April 2018 have indicated that the wreck is generally stable but was showing accelerated levels of deterioration.[23] In 2002, it was reported that the wreck is monitored constantly by port authorities, and is subject to a 500-metre exclusion zone.[24]
ERW contamination
ERW were also found in some of the contaminated areas on the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas.
Casualties
No casualties caused by mines/ERW, or by other unexploded ordnance (UXO), have been reported in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas.[25]
Mine Action
Operators and service providers
SafeLane Global was the sole demining contractor in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas.
Clearance
Land release overview[26]
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Land release (phases 1–5a) |
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October 2009–March 2018 |
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Land release (phase 5b) |
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April 2018 to April 2020 |
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Progress |
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The UK reported completing clearance of all antipersonnel mines in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas in November 2020 |
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Note: ERW=Explosive Remnants of War.
Land release: landmines
Some mine clearance was undertaken in the early 1980s immediately following the conflict, during which 1,855 landmines were removed and destroyed from mined area.[27]
Full clearance operations in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas began in 2009 culminating in the clearance of 122 minefields. All mine clearance on the islands was undertaken by SafeLane Global, using Zimbabwean deminers.[28] To demonstrate that all reasonable effort had been made, detailed site implementation plans were developed for each demining site to show what was expected to be found, what was done, what was found, and what was learned.[29]
The clearance was conducted in phases. The first four phases of clearance took place from October 2009 to March 2016, during which 35 mined areas were released, totaling just over 7km².[30] Phase 5(a) was completed at the end of March 2018, with just over 4.8km² cleared. Phase 5(b) commenced in April 2018[31] and was completed in November 2020. The COVID-19 pandemic had temporarily suspended operations in the first part of 2020.[32]
Don Carlos Bay and Beatrice Cove, which had been inaccessible to all persons on the islands since 1982,[33] were released after survey confirmed that neither area had mines.[34]
Clearance was prioritized initially in mined areas closest to settlements and civilian infrastructure, resulting in the release of areas near Port Stanley, and then according to ranking, including factors such as the size and density of a minefield; terrestrial factors (remoteness of location, topography, and difficulty of mine removal); human factors (proximity to life, benefits to the local population of clearance, and political priorities of the UK Government and the Falkland Islands Government); and environmental factors (conservation of wildlife and adherence to local legislation).
Challenges for clearance included the environmentally sensitive nature of mined areas, [35] remote locations, adverse weather conditions, incomplete Argentine minefield records, and the limits on the capacity of the islands to provide certain facilities for demining.[36]
Residual risk
The UK believes that the likelihood of further clearance tasks arising, or of landmines being found after program completion, is very low. Any mines found following the conclusion of the demining program will be cleared by the Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) team, of the Royal Air Force’s Armament Engineering Flight on the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas.[37]
Risk Education
Implementation
While the humanitarian impact of mine-affected areas was reported to be negligible, risk education was conducted for both military and civilian personnel, to ensure that mine awareness remained a key part of normal health and safety considerations.[38] The civilian population has been instructed to follow a “mark, leave, report” process, in relation to finding landmines or other UXO.[39]
Marking
All 122 mined areas were perimeter-marked, and were regularly monitored and protected by stock proof fencing to ensure the effective exclusion of civilians.
[1] Statement of the UK, Mine Ban Treaty Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties (virtual), 16–20 November 2020.
[2] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 10.
[3] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018.
[4] Statement of the UK, Mine Ban Treaty Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties (virtual), 16–20 November 2020.
[5] See, UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, pp. 3 and 7. The FCO was renamed in 2020 as the Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office (FCDO).
[6] Fenix Insight, “Operations: Falkland Islands,” 12 July 2019.
[7] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 9, and UK Government, “Landmines Act 1998,” undated.
[8] FCO, “Falklands Demining Programme Workplan Under Article 5,” 30 April 2020, p .4.
[9] Ibid. Average exchange rate for 2020: £1=US$1.2829. US Federal Reserve, ‘‘List of Exchange Rates (Annual),’’ 29 January 2021.
[10] UK Government, “Landmines Act 1998.”
[11] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 10.
[12] UK Mine Ban Treaty Article 7 Report (for calendar year 2016), Form F.
[13] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 10.
[14] Email from an official in the Arms Export Policy Department, FCO, 28 July 2017; and UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, pp. 3 and 11.
[15] UK Mine Ban Treaty Article 7 Report (for calendar year 2018), Form F, p. 11.
[16] Fenix Insight, “Operations: Falkland Islands,” 12 July 2019.
[17] UK Mine Ban Treaty Article 7 Report (for calendar year 2019), ‘‘Additional Reporting for 2019,’’ p. 20.
[18] See, UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 6; and Statement of the UK, Mine Ban Treaty Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties (virtual), 16–20 November 2020.
[19] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 3.
[20] FCO, “Falklands Demining Programme Workplan Under Article 5,” 30 April 2020, p. 9.
[21] Statement of the UK, Mine Ban Treaty Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties (virtual), 16–20 November 2020.
[22] UK Mine Ban Treaty First Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 31 May 2008, p. 4.
[23] See, “Masts to be cut from Thames Estuary wreck packed with explosives,” BBC News, 4 June 2020; Maritime and Coastguard Agency, “Report on the Wreck of the SS Richard Montgomery,” November 2020, p. 20; and Jamie Doward and Chris Bradford, “Fears grow the WW2 wreck could explode on Kent coast,” The Guardian, 17 August 2019.
[24] John James, “Life in the explosion radius of the SS Montgomery - The Isle of Sheppey’s bomb ship,” Kent Live, 1 November 2010.
[25] UK Mine Ban Treaty First Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 31 May 2008, p. 2 and FCO, “Falklands Demining Programme Workplan Under Article 5,” 30 April 2020, p. 4.
[26] Data on phase 1–5a clearance from UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 6; data on phase 5b clearance from FCO, “Falklands Demining Programme Workplan Under Article 5,” 30 April 2020, pp. 3 and 9. It was reported that 319 mines were cleared and destroyed in 2019. See, UK Mine Ban Treaty Article 7 Report (for calendar year 2019), Form G, p. 12.
[27] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 6.
[28] “The Zimbabwean Deminers who’ve made the Falklands Mine-Free,” BBC News, 14 November 2020; and presentation by John Hare, SafeLane Global, Mine Ban Treaty Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties (virtual), 20 November 2020.
[29] Presentation by John Hare and by Guy Marot, SafeLane Global, Mine Ban Treaty Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties, 20 November 2020.
[30] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, Annex A, ‘‘Cumulative Land Release Totals,’’ 5 March 2018, p. 3.
[31] Ibid.
[32] FCO, “Falklands Demining Programme Workplan Under Article 5,” 30 April 2020, p. 4.
[33] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 13.
[34] FCO, “Falklands Demining Programme Workplan Under Article 5,” 30 April 2020, p. 10.
[35] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, pp. 3 and 10.
[36] Statement of the UK, Mine Ban Treaty intersessional meetings, Geneva, 8 June 2017; and UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 3. Demining operations were limited in terms of staff numbers, due to limited accommodation capacity and the logistics involved in evacuating casualties by air.
[37] FCO, “Falklands Demining Programme Workplan Under Article 5,” 30 April 2020, p. 5.
[38] UK Mine Ban Treaty Second Article 5 deadline Extension Request, 29 March 2018, p. 10.
[39] FCO, “Falklands Demining Programme Workplan Under Article 5,” 30 April 2020, p. 5.