Policy

The Russian Federation has not acceded to the Mine Ban Treaty.  

Russia said in November 2020 that it “shares the goals of the treaty and supports a world free of mines,” but regards antipersonnel mines “as an effective way of ensuring the security of Russia’s borders.”[1]

Russia has used antipersonnel landmines repeatedly in Ukraine since it invaded the country on 24 February 2022, resulting in an unprecedented situation in which a country that is not party to the Mine Ban Treaty is using the weapon on the territory of a State Party.

Russia has also said that it cannot join due its “serious doubts” over the treaty’s “reliability” because, in its view, the treaty lacks “the necessary tools to ensure the compliance of those States that have violated it.”[2] Russia has only ever alleged Mine Ban Treaty violations by one State Party, Ukraine.

Russia participated as an observer in the 1996–1997 Ottawa Process that created the Mine Ban Treaty, but did not adopt or sign the treaty. It attended the treaty’s First Meeting of States Parties in 1999 and the Second Review Conference in 2009 as an observer. Russia last participated in a Mine Ban Treaty meeting in 2010.

Russia has consistently abstained from voting on the annual United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolution promoting universalization and full implementation of the treaty. Russia most recently abstained from voting on UNGA Resolution 76/26 on 6 December 2021.[3]

Russia is party to the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW) and its Amended Protocol II on landmines and Protocol V on explosive remnants of war (ERW). Russia last submitted annual transparency reports for both protocols in April 2022. Russia is not party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions.

Production                        

Russia has produced at least 12 types of antipersonnel landmines since 1992, including blast mines (PMN, PMN-2, PMN-4, and PFM-1S) and fragmentation mines (POM-2, POM-3, POMZ-2, OZM-72, MOB, MON-50, MON-90, MON-100, and MON-200). Russia has stated on several occasions that its production of blast mines halted in 1997.[4]

Russia has been conducting research on new landmines, modifications to existing mine types, and alternatives to mines since at least 1997.[5] Russia debuted new “smart” landmine systems during annual military exercises in 2021, including the POM-3 “Medallion” self-destructing bounding fragmentation antipersonnel mine, which is equipped with inherent antihandling/anti-disturbance capability and had been in development since at least 2015.[6] It also tested several types of newly developed antivehicle mines in 2021, such as the PTKM-1R mine.[7]

Ukrainian forces displayed a new directional fragmentation Claymore type mine, called MOB, in October 2022, which had been captured from Russian forces.[8]

Russia’s landmine production is illustrated by its use of newly manufactured MOB, POM-3, and PTKM-1R mines in Ukraine during 2022.

Transfer

On 1 December 1994, Russia put in place a moratorium on the export of antipersonnel landmines that are either not detectable or not equipped with self-destruct devices. The moratorium formally expired in 2002, but Russia reported in 2022 that was still being observed.[9]

Antipersonnel landmines of Soviet/Russian origin have been found emplaced in at least 30 mine-affected countries.[10] In recent years, antipersonnel mines of Russian manufacture—distinct from versions produced in the former Soviet Union—have appeared in Syria[11] and Ukraine.[12]

In Libya, six types of Russian-made antipersonnel mines, and two types of antivehicle mines that had not been seen before in Libya, were used in and around Tripoli in 2019 and 2020.[13] In March 2021, a United Nations (UN) Security Council Panel of Experts on Libya reported evidence that private military contractors from the Wagner Group had brought the antipersonnel mines to Libya to use in their operations.[14]

Stockpiling and destruction

In 2004, Minister of Defense Sergei Ivanov said that Russia stockpiled 26.5 million antipersonnel mines.[15] This marked the first time that Russia had released official information on the number of antipersonnel mines in its stocks.

The defense minister forecast that approximately 23.5 million of these antipersonnel mines would be destroyed between 2005 and 2015. In 2010, Russia told a Mine Ban Treaty meeting that it had destroyed a total of 10 million mines, including antipersonnel mines.[16] In 2010 alone, more than 464,000 antipersonnel landmines that did not meet international requirements were destroyed.[17]

Since 2010, Russia has not shared any public information on its stockpile or destruction efforts.

Russian military units have maintained landmine stocks in other countries within the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), such as 18,200 mines in Tajikistan, a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty.[18]

Use

New use

Russia has used antipersonnel landmines in Ukraine since its invasion of the country began on 24 February 2022.[19] There were also numerous allegations from Russian media sources in 2022 that Ukrainian forces have used antipersonnel mines in violation of the Mine Ban Treaty.

At least eight types of antipersonnel mines have been used, or are alleged to have been used, by Russian forces in Ukraine since February 2022. There is confirmed evidence that Russian forces have also emplaced victim-activated booby-traps and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) since February 2022, at numerous locations prior to retreating and abandoning their positions.[20]

Antipersonnel landmines used in Ukraine since February 2022

Note: USSR=Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

All the mine types listed above were manufactured in Russia or its predecessor, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, or Soviet Union). Some of the landmines used in Ukraine in 2022 were manufactured as recently as 2021. This includes the POM-3 antipersonnel mine, which is delivered by the ISDM Zemledelie-I mine-laying rocket launcher from between 5–15km away.[21] The POM-3  mine is equipped with a sensitive seismic fuze that makes it prone to detonate when approached, as well as a self-destruct feature. Another antipersonnel mine used in Ukraine is the PMN-4 blast mine developed by Russia in the early 1990s, after Ukraine achieved its independence.[22]

Other types of landmines used in Ukraine can be used in a command-detonated or victim-activated mode, including the newly seen MOB, MON-series, and OZM-72 mines.^[23] The POM-2 landmine is delivered by helicopter, ground-fired rockets, or other remote means such as vehicles, while its variant the POM-2R is designed to be emplaced by hand.[24]If activated by the victim through a mechanical pull, tension release, seismic fuze, or other means, then such munitions are considered to be antipersonnel mines, which are prohibited by the Mine Ban Treaty.[25]

Use of PFM-series mines

There have been numerous allegations and counter-allegations that both Russia and Ukraine have used PFM-series antipersonnel mines in Ukraine in 2022. The claims began during the first days of the invasion and have continued to emerge with greater frequency. The Monitor has reviewed approximately 30 such allegations, most of which related to territory under the control of Russian forces at the time the claim was made. After Ukrainian forces re-captured territory, particularly in eastern parts of the Kharkiv region and the city of Izium in September 2022, and former Russian-controlled territory became accessible to independent researchers, more information on the scale and method of PFM-series mine use has become available.

Both Russia and Ukraine stockpile PFM-series mines, which are delivered by a variety of dispersal systems including hand-carried ground launchers, vehicle-mounted launchers, jets and helicopters, and ground-fired 122mm and 220mm rockets.[26] The size of Russia’s stockpile of PFM-series mines is unknown.

Ukraine declared possessing 3.3 million PFM-series mines in 2020, which are all earmarked for destruction in accordance with the Mine Ban Treaty.[27] Ukraine has already destroyed more than three million PFM-series mines contained in cartridges used in the KMGU aerial dispenser and other types of “cassettes” carrying PFM-series mines used to load different types of delivery systems. The vast majority of Ukraine’s remaining antipersonnel landmine stocks consist of PFM-1S self-destructing mines contained in 220mm 9M27K3 rockets fired by the Uragan multi-barrel rocket launchers.[28]

Ukrainian Prosecutor General Irina Venediktova claimed that PFM-series landmines were used by Russian forces in the Kharkiv region as early as 26 February 2022.[29] Subsequently, a Polish media outlet reported that the General Staff of the Ukrainian Army had confirmed the discovery of such mines.[30] Other allegations of Russian use of PFM-series mines, recorded by the Monitor, include claims made on Ukrainian social media that a Russian aircraft scattered PFM mines in the Sumi region in mid-March 2022.[31] Similar reports surfaced in early April 2022 alleging Russian use of PFM-series mines near the town of Popasnaya.[32]

Russian officials have alleged that Ukrainian forces used PFM-series antipersonnel mines, while photographs and videos shared by Russians on social media showed PFM-series mines lying in place after attacks in areas that were under Russian control at the time.[33] Ukraine has denied the allegations and blamed Russian forces for PFM-series mine use.[34] The United Kingdom (UK) and the US have accused Russian forces of using PFM-series mines in the Donbas region.[35]

Initially, most claims of use made by Russian sources consisted of a close-up photograph of a mine posted to social media with no further context.[36] This trend culminated in July 2022, as Russian media sources in the city of Donetsk claimed that PFM-series mines had been scattered at several locations in the city center. These allegations were accompanied by images of mine clearance;[37] of individual PFM mines in isolation;[38] of civilians handling presumably live mines;[39] and claims of civilian casualties.[40] Russian diplomatic posts globally shared and quickly amplified the story.[41]

One of the more notable Russian claims of PFM-series mine use by Ukrainian forces originated from an attack in late May 2022 on Russian positions in Novovoskresenske, in the Kherson region. Evidence of the attack included photographs of mines in place, remnants of detonated mines, and remnants of the 220mm 9M27K3 Uragan mine-laying rocket, which opens in flight and scatters a payload of 312 PFM-type mines.[42] Ukrainian officials cited in a Ukrainian media report about this attack on 25 May 2022 counter-attributed responsibility to Russian forces.[43]

As of October 2022, there was significant visual evidence of PFM-type mine use and the remnants of the distinctive carrier equipment necessary to deploy these mines. For example, there have been sightings of the KPFM-1M cassette assembly used by 9M27K3 220mm Uragan mine-laying rockets.[44] Both elements were present in images accompanying the Russian claim that Ukrainian troops had mined the approaches to Bakhmut and Soledar, in the Donetsk region, in early August 2022.[45] There have been no sightings of KSF-1 series canisters or the BKF-PFM cartridges necessary to deploy these mines from other launch modalities, such as trucks or helicopters.

Since there is no independent confirmation of the allegations, a final assessment and attribution of use of PFM-type mines in Ukraine is not possible at this time.

International reaction

Since March 2022, Russia’s use of antipersonnel mines in Ukraine has been strongly condemned, including by the Mine Ban Treaty president of the Twentieth Meeting of States Parties, Colombia, as well as Austria, Belgium, Italy, New Zealand, Poland, and the US. The new use of antipersonnel landmines in Ukraine has also been condemned by the treaty’s special envoy for universalization, as well as by US congressional representatives such as Senator Patrick Leahy.[46] 

The International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) called on all parties to the armed conflict in Ukraine to ensure that no antipersonnel mines were used by any actor, and to destroy any antipersonnel mines seized or otherwise acquired.[47]

Previous use

Antipersonnel mines were used in the conflict between Ukrainian government forces and Russian-supported separatists that erupted in early 2014—initially in Crimea, and later in the Donetsk and Luhansk provinces of eastern Ukraine. The government of Ukraine has stated that it did not use antipersonnel mines and has accused Russian-supported insurgent forces of laying mines.[48]

Since 1999, Russian forces have used antipersonnel landmines in Chechnya, but also at times in Dagestan, Tajikistan, and on Russia’s border with Georgia.[49] Russia has argued that its mine use has been necessary to stop the flow of weapons, drugs, and terrorists; and maintains that it has been in full compliance with CCW Amended Protocol II on landmines.[50]

In Libya, significant new mine contamination was discovered in Tripoli in May 2020 after Libyan Arab Armed Forces (LAAF) fighters withdrew from the city. Credible evidence indicated that the Wagner Group, a private Russian military security contractor with apparent links to the Russian government,[51] was responsible for transferring and using antipersonnel mines as part of its support to the LAAF.

Several types of Russian or Soviet-made antipersonnel landmines were laid in the Ain Zara, Al-Khilla, Salahuddin, Sidra, and Wadi al-Rabi districts of Tripoli in 2019–2020, according to the Government of National Accord (GNA), the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL), the Libyan Mine Action Center (LibMAC) and mine clearance operators. This included Russian-made MON-50, MON-200, and OZM-72 mines, which had not been used in Libya previously. Various explosive charges were also used to booby-trap homes, including antivehicle mines.

In August 2021, the BBC published a report on the contents of an electronic tablet believed to have belonged to a fighter from the Wagner Group, which included maps of mined areas in Tripoli in 2020.[52] Mine clearance operators subsequently confirmed to Human Rights Watch (HRW) in May 2022 that all 35 locations listed in the tablet were indeed contaminated by landmines, and that the Wagner Group was likely responsible given its presence in those areas at the time.[53]